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The Pentateuch

An introduction to the Bible's first five books

The word Pentateuch means “5 scrolls” and refers to the first 5 books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These books form the foundation for the whole Bible. Understanding the Pentateuch is crucial if you want to study the Bible well. This quick overview of the Pentateuch will introduce you to the following topics:

The different names for the Pentateuch

The structure of the Pentateuch

The types of literature in the Pentateuch

The issues of history and the Pentateuch

The Name

The first five books of the Bible go by several different names: the Pentateuch, the Torah, or the Books of Moses.

For example, the word "Pentateuch" comes from Greek and means “5 scrolls.” It was popularized in Alexandria Egypt around the first century A.D.

The word “Torah” is the more common Jewish name for the collection. It means “law” or “instruction.”

Finally, the Books of Moses is a phrase used throughout the Bible to refer to these books and their traditional association with Moses.

The Structure

As the name implies, the Pentateuch divides into five different books with different emphases.

Genesis tells the origin stories of creation and the family of Israel.

Exodus describes Israel’s time in Egypt, their delieverance from slavery, and the establishment of the covenant with God.

Leviticus details the religious aspects of the covenant.

Numbers details the civil aspects of the covenant and the years spent wandering in the wilderness.

Deuteronomy recaps the story so far and re-establishes the covenant with the generation that will enter into the promised land.

While each book tells its own story, the Pentateuch also functions as a single literary unit. We can divide the 5 books into two major sections (Genesis 1-11 and Genesis 12 - Deuteronomy 34).

Genesis 1-11 tells the story of creation until the events right after the flood. It establishes the setting and the central conflict that impacts the rest of the biblical story. Genesis 12 - Deuteronomy 34 shows how God establishes his covenant with a particular family. It also chronicles their struggle to realize the promises God has for them. The Pentateuch ends with the people situated just outside of the promised land.

The Literature of the Pentateuch

The Pentateuch consists of several types of literature. The 3 major types are narrative, poetry, and legal code.

The majority of the Pentateuch is narrative. These are the famous stories you are likely familiar with (e.g., Adam and Eve, the Flood, the Ten Plagues, etc.).

The Pentateuch also utilizes poetry in many places (e.g., Miriam’s song in Exod 15; Jacob’s blessings in Gen 49).

Finally, the Pentateuch is famous for its legal code consisting of roughly 600 laws. The laws governed the civil, ceremonial, and ritual aspects of ancient Israel’s life. The civil laws dealt with issues related to marriage, inheritance, and property rights. The ceremonial laws dealt with adultery, theft, assault, and liability. The ritual laws dealt with issues of sacrifice, purification, worship, and festivals.

The Pentateuch and History

Most of the events of the Pentateuch (Abraham-Moses) are set in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. This time frame corresponds to roughly 2000 BCE - 1200 BCE. The exact time frame depends on how one dates particular events in the Bible and in world history.

Two major factors complicate our attempts to determine the exact dates for the events recorded in the Pentateuch.

First, the stories were passed down for generations. Whether you think Moses wrote all of the Pentateuch or it's the work of scribal editors over several centuries, many of the stories were undoubtedly passed down orally until they were eventually written down.

Second, the archaeological record from the ancient world is not as precise as we might like.

When we combine data from the Bible and other ancient Near Eastern sources, we discover some inconsistencies in how these ancient societies used numbers and recorded historical events. Consequently, we can not be certain about the dates we assign to the stories recorded in the Pentateuch.

On a final note: historical questions about the Pentateuch frequently generate the most heated debates about Genesis-Deuteronomy. While these questions are important to address, they should not be allowed to overshadow the books' theological message. These books serve as the theological backbone of the whole Bible. It is far more important that we understand the message of the Pentateuch than the answers to historical questions about the Pentateuch.